Language & Gender Essay

Language and gender in the classroom Many of the issues reviewed in this chapter have far-reaching implications in classrooms. Classrooms and schools are among society’s primary socializing institutions. In them, children come to understand their social identity relative to each other and relative to the institution. Although schools are certainly not responsible for teaching students their gender-differentiated social roles, they often reinforce the subordinate role of girls and women through curricular choices and classroom organizations that exclude, denigrate, and/or stereotype them. However, as discussed earlier in this chapter, recent theoretical insights suggest that identity is not fixed, that language use is not static, and that it is possible to negotiate social identities through alternative language use. It follows, then, that schools are sites in which inequities (based on gender, race, ethnicity, language background, age, sexuality, etc. can be challenged and potentially transformed by selecting materials that represent identity groups more equally, by reorganizing classroom interaction so that all students have the opportunity to talk and demonstrate achievement, and by encouraging students to critically analyze the ways they use language in their everyday lives. Based on a review of 2 decades of research on gender and classroom interaction, Clarricoates concludes that interaction between teachers and students and among students themselves is â€Å"suffused with gender† (1983, p. 6; cited by Swann, 1993). Studies reviewed by Swann (1993) describ e a range of ways in which gender differentiation is maintained in mainstream English-speaking classrooms, including the following: †¢ ‘ While there are quiet pupils of both sexes, the more outspoken pupils tend to be boys. †¢ Boys also tend to ‘stand out’ more than girls. Michelle Stanworth (1983) notes that in her study teachers initially found some girls ‘hard to place’. Boys also referred to a ‘faceless’ bunch of girls. Boys tend to be generally more assertive than girls. For instance, a US study of whole-class talk (Sadker and Sadker, 1985) found boys were eight times more likely than girls to call out. †¢ Girls and boys tend to sit separately; in group work, pupils usually elect to work in single-sex rather than mixed-sex groups. †¢ When they have the choice, girls and boys often discuss or write about gender-typed topics. †¢ Boys are often openly disparaging towards girls. †¢ In practical subjects, such as science, boys hog the resources. In practical subjects, girls ‘fetch and carry’ for boys, doing much of the cleaning up, and collec ting books and so on. †¢ Boys occupy, and are allowed to occupy, more space, both in class and outside—for example, in play areas. †¢ Teachers often make distinctions between girls and boys – for disciplinary or administrative reasons or to motivate pupils to do things. †¢ Teachers give more attention to boys than to girls. †¢ Topics and materials for discussion are often chosen to maintain boys’ interests. Teachers tend not to perceive disparities between the numbers of contributions from girls and boys. Sadker and Sadker (1985) showed US teachers a video of classroom talk in which boys made three times as many contributions as girls — but teachers believed the girls had talked more. †¢ Teachers accept certain behaviour (such as calling out) from boys but not from girls. †¢ Female teachers may themselves be subject to harrassment from male pupils. †¢ ‘Disaffected’ girls tend to opt out quietly at the back of the class, whereas disaffected boys make trouble. (Swann, 1993, pp. 1-52) A 10-year research project by Sadker and Sadker (1993; including participant observation, audio and video recordings, interviews with students and teachers, and large-scale surveys) in elementary, junior high, and high school, and in university classes in the United States, and the review of research on language and gender in the classroom by Sommers and Lawrence (1992), both support these general findings. It is interesting to note the parallel between research on girls and boys in schools on the one hand, and on minority and majority students in schools on the other. Just as boys and men (generally with no attention to factors like race and ethnicity) seem to be advantaged at the expense of girls and women in mainstream schools in Britain, Australia, and the United States, white middle-class standard English speakers (generally with no attention to gender) seem to be advantaged at the expense of nonwhite middle-class standard English speakers (see Nieto, 1992, for further discussion). However, as Swann (1993) points out, these findings need to be interpreted with some caution. The differences between sexes are always average ones, and boys and girls behave differently in different contexts. In other words, these are tendencies, not absolutes, that have been documented in mainstream English-speaking classes. It should be emphasized that there is considerable variation that can be exploited by teachers in their own classes. As discussed earlier, for the variation in how girls and boys use language to be understood, research needs to begin not with boys and girls as fixed categories that behave or are treated the same in all contexts, but with a particular community of practice, in this case a class or a school. The analysis, then, needs to focus on the activity and on how boys’ and girls’ rights and obligations are constructed within that activity within that community of practice. Once the class and the activities to be analyzed have been identified, the teacher or researcher can begin by asking how girls and boys, women and men, are represented, for example, in the texts selected for use in the class as well as in the work that the students produce. Researchers have found that women, like other minority groups, tend to be excluded, marginalized, or stereotyped within the mainstream curriculum content (see Nieto, 1992; Sadker ;amp; Sadker, 1993; Swann, 1993, for further discussion). Although we are not aware of any studies that have documented short-term and longer-term effects of mainstream curriculum content versus curriculum content that is gender balanced, Swann summarizes the concerns of teachers and researchers about gender imbalances in the curriculum as follows: Teachers and researchers have been concerned about imbalances in children’s reading materials because of their potential immediate and local effects: they may affect the way pupils respond to a particular book and the subject with which it is associated; they may also affect the pupils’ performance on assessment tasks. There is further concern that, in the longer term, such imbalances may help to reinforce gender differences and inequalities: they may influence children’s perceptions of what are appropriate attributes, activities, occupations, and so forth for males and females. Introducing alternative images may redress the balance, and also have a disruptive effect, causing pupils to question accepted views of girls and boys and women and men. (p. 113) Swann (pp. 190-197) provides a variety of checklists that teachers and researchers can use to investigate how girls and boys, women and men, are represented and evaluated in the texts they choose and the activities they organize within their classrooms. When teachers find that their curricular choices are not balanced with respect to gender, for example, that the science text includes few contributions by women, that the literature anthology includes stories primarily by white males about white males, or that the women included in the texts are portrayed only in traditional roles, they can adopt texts that offer images of women and men in less traditional roles. If the goal is to encourage students to question traditional notions, simply providing alternative images in the curriculum content may not be sufficient. Teachers may want to encourage students to talk about traditional and alternative images, perhaps by critically reading and responding to sexist materials, by emphasizing choice in women’s and men’s roles, and by challenging representations of women and men (and other groups) in the students’ own work. We will return to these points later in this chapter. As has been discussed throughout this chapter, it is not only what is talked about, in this case through the curriculum content, that helps shape gender roles; equally or more important is an understanding of how girls and boys, women and men, position themselves and each other through their interactions. With respect to the organization of classroom interaction, research suggests that participation frameworks, or groupings of students and teachers for classroom activities (e. . , as individuals, in pairs, in small groups, or as a teacher-fronted classes), can strongly influence the students’ opportunities to talk and demonstrate achievement (see Erickson, this volume; Saville-Troike, this volume). For example, mainstream U. S. classrooms are generally characterized by the transmission model of teaching and learning (Cummins, 1989) and the initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) participation structure (Holmes, 1978). In these teacher-centered classes, the teacher talks for most of the time as he or she transmits the curriculum content to the student population in a relatively competitive atmosphere, and initiates the students5 participation. The students are encouraged to bid for the opportunity to respond to what Cazden (1988) describes as the â€Å"known-answer55 question, and the teacher then evaluates the students’ responses as right or wrong. It is in this traditional competitive classroom that boys seem to be advantaged (Sadker ;amp;c Sadker, 1993; Tannen, 1992). However, just as women participated more in more collaboratively organized meetings than in traditional hierarchically organized meetings (see earlier discussions of Edelsky, 1981; Goodwin, 1990), some research suggests that girls, as well as students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds, participate more in cooperative learning organizations than in traditional teacher-centered classes (Kramarae ;amp; Treichler, 1990; Tannen, 1992; see also Kessler, 1990, for a general review of benefits of cooperative learning). However, the picture is much more complicated; simply organizing students into smaller groups is not the answer. In fact, some research suggests that mixed-sex groupings can reproduce boys’ dominant role and girls’ supportive role. For example, in a study by Sommers and Lawrence (1992) of mixed-sex peer response groups of college students in writing classes, it was found that males took far more turns than females, produced greater quantities of talk, at times appropriated females’ ideas as their own, and tended to interrupt and/or silence their female counterparts. Females tended to wait, listen, acknowledge, and confirm other students’ contributions. When Sommers and Lawrence compared male and female participation in the peer response groups with their participation in the teacher-fronted participation framework, they found that boys and girls tended to participate more or less equally in the teacher-fronted organization because the teachers could exert more control over how the participation opportunities were distributed. It is important to mention that the teachers in these teacher-fronted classes were Lawrence and Sommers themselves, and that they were aware of and concerned about equal participation opportunities for males and females in their classes. In a study by Rennie and Parker (1987, cited by Swann, 1993) of primary school students in science classes in Australia, it was also found that boys tended to talk more in mixed-sex groupings, and girls tended to watch and listen. However, in single-sex groups, and in classes in which the teachers had participated in a â€Å"gender awareness† course, girls tended to participate more actively. Both these examples suggest that when teachers are aware of gender-differentiated language use, they can change the dynamics in their classes so that girls and women are not subordinated, at least in the short run. Swann (1993) provides some useful suggestions for teachers and researchers who are interested in systematically observing and analyzing the dynamics within their own classes to understand how girls and boys are positioned relative to each other (Chap. 8), as well as suggestions for changing discriminatory practices (Chap. 9). The research discussed thus far has been concerned with genderdifferentiated language use in mainstream, white, standard Englishspeaking contexts in the United States, Britain, and Australia. Even in these relatively homogeneous contexts, it is evident that factors other than gender (e. g. participation framework and activity type) may affect the way people behave. Although there has been relatively little detailed research to date on the ways in which boys and girls from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds interact in the classroom, an area of particular concern to ESL and bilingual teachers, it is likely that factors such as culture, race, ethnic ity, and socioeconomic status interact with gender to shape students’ participation opportunities. For example, Swann (1993) discusses a series of analyses of gender and ethnic imbalances in classroom discussions in four nursery and primary schools in Ealing, England. Swann points out that in the original analysis, Claire and Redpath (1989) found that boys averaged three times as many turns as girls, and that some boys were more talkative than others; this finding is consistent with much of the research on girls’ and boys’ participation in classes. Their follow-up analysis of the same data, however, suggests an interaction between gender and ethnic group. They found that the boys who dominated the discussion group were white and black Afro-Caribbean; the Asian boys participated much less frequently. White and black Afro-Caribbean girls participated about equally; Asian girls participated the least of any group. They speculate that the topics of discussion and teachers’ attitudes and behaviors in the lesson might contribute to these classroom dynamics (see Swann, 1993, p. 65, for further discussion). Consistent with Claire and Redpath’s first analysis, research by Sadker and Sadker (1993) found no systematic differences between black and white students, students from different age groups, or students from different socioeconomic backgrounds.

Developmental psychology

This evidence shows prove that being in a low income family or living in poverty as some might like to say, has a very big impact on children's life if a parent has low self-esteem no drive in themselves then it is not showing young children how to grow into young positive, confident and thriving adults, so therefore Just copy what they now and this can cause a cycle. Quality of food we eat and give our children Is another environmental fact that can can help with our child's development, Junk food for example can make children obese, this can cause all sorts of problems In health, children who are obese will have less energy, this will cause children to not want to socialism, and this can lead to other problems such as low self-esteem,depression and anger. If you feed children more healthy food they are going to have so much more energy It will make them eager to go out and socialism and most of all help them to learn, improve your child's behavior and learning by improving their di et.Eating adequate protein and getting other nutrients that support optimal brain functioned life and school is another most important environmental fact that has a big impact on a child's development. Some children can not have the love and attention they would like and need at home this can cause children to be rebel's as some people would say, this could be caused by not knowing how to show emotion, this could be because of them not being shown emotion by family Page 1 15 Lisa Henderson 72ND at home so in a sense it's attention seeking this is due to a child doesn't feel that they are getting any attention of their family/parent's and the only way to do that is to play up even though it's not necessarily the attention they would like from their family, its there only way of getting it.School has another impact on children's development, if a child is asked to do something at school and feels they are incapable but yet the teacher still insists that the child carries out the activ ity the child can then start to feel frustrated,angry and then leaves the child feeling inadequate and leaves them with a sense of failure and embarrassment. Bullying is another major problem that can happen inside or outside of school and has a major impact on children's behavior and development this can cause low self-esteem, and stress which can then cause lack of sleep due to worry which then stops the main from functioning to its full a capability, stopping the child to fully express them selves.To help children who are in this situation they need support and need confidence and transduction's, the characteristic of this and the meaning is that children or adults develop through a more hands on approach, by this I mean learning by doing. A Russian man named Level Whisky was one of the first men to push to prove that children can learn through constructivist learning. Level Whisky used a method called ‘scaffolding' in this method he changed the level of support which was p rovided depending on how skilled the child was and this of course did vary.Depending on how skilled the child was would depend on how much help they would need, and in time need none at all. Quote: The term ‘scaffolding' is meant to represent the support for assistance provided by the teacher or mentor in the learning process. â€Å"cataloging† is a metaphor that describes the way a teacher provides assistance to the students during the learning process in much the same way that construction scaffolding serves as a temporary support until the build 2005 An example of this is some children might be able to write their name at the age of three and some children might not be able to until they are five. This is a good example to compare this theory against the constructivist theory, the reason for this is children might learn to write their name at school by using the more hands on earning approach, but younger children could learn it earlier then this by maturing earlier. Maturations learning was a way that children could learn at their own pace, every child learns different and some faster than others, this was also a way of children improving on what they already new and choosing new ways of learning by themselves, instead of somebody trying to teach them something they are was not ready to learn natural way. . Maturations also it all owed children to develop in a â€Å"observe progress in a child and choose to focus on what a child already knows, rather than what he or she doesn't know' Children mature at different stages and this could be for a numerous reasons, due to being a premature baby or Just they are incapable of doing something because they haven't developed the skills to perform certain tasks yet.An example of this is, a three year old child at the age of three being able to talk in full sentences and another child exactly the same age not being able to talk at all with no medical reason what's so ever Just that he is not yet capable o f doing so. I know this from experience. With a child who isn't capable of doing things like other children there win age this would be a good way of trying to teach them, its a good way of them learning at their own pace in their own time without feeling pressured. Page/ 5 Henderson 72ND II: Using Jean Piglet's stages of cognitive development, describe the rationale behind the use of Key stage testing in primary schools. Lean Piglet's stated that children progressed through four different stages in their childhood.The stage he stated children was at during primary school was the concrete operations stage. This was studied with ages 7-11 . â€Å"Concrete operations (ages-11). As physical experience accumulates, accommodation s increased. The child begins to think abstractly and conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experience's†

Advertising and Product

Expressed usually as a percentage of  target market, brand awareness is the primary goal of  advertising  in the early months or years of a  products introduction. [1] Brand awareness is the extent to which the consumer associates the brand with the product he desires to buy. It is the brand recall and the brand recognition of the company to the consumers. Brand recall is the ability of the consumer to recollect the brand with reference to the product where as brand recognition is the potential of the consumer to retrieve the past knowledge of the brand when enquired about the brand or shown an image of the brand  logo. Brand awareness is an essential part of  brand development  which helps the brand to stand out from the others in this monopolistically competitive market. A brand name that is well known to the great majority of households is also called a  household name. - Importance  [edit] Awareness, attitudes, and usage (AAU) metrics relate closely to what has been called the Hierarchy of Effects, an assumption that customers progress through sequential stages from lack of awareness, through initial purchase of a product, to brand loyalty. In total, these AAU metrics allow companies to track trends in customer knowledge and attitudes. [2] Brand awareness plays a major role in a consumer’s buying decision process. The knowledge of an acquaintance or friend having used the product in the past or a high recognition of the product through constant advertisements and associations coaxes the person to make his decision in the favour of the brand. The eventual goal of most businesses is to make profits and increase sales. Businesses intend to increase their consumer pool and encourage repeat purchases. Apple is a brilliant example of how there is a very high recognition of the brand logo and high anticipation of a new product being released by the company. An iPod is the first thing that pops into our minds when we think of purchasing an mp3 player. iPod is used as a replaceable noun to describe an mp3 player. Finally, high brand awareness about a product suggests that the brand is easily recognizable and accepted by the market in a way that the brand is differentiated from similar products and other competitors. Brand building also helps in improving brand loyalty. - Types of Brand Awareness  [edit] Aided Awareness- This type of awareness is generated in a consumer. When asked about a product category, if the consumer is aided with a list of company names and he recognizes the company from the given set it is categorized as aided awareness. Top of the mind Awareness- When the name of the company is automatically recollected because the consumer very promptly associates the brand with the product category, it is called a top of the mind awareness of the product. [3] - Methodologies  [edit] Mokhira discussion in industry and practice about the meaning and value of various brand awareness metrics. Recently, an  empirical  study appeared to put this debate to rest by suggesting that all awareness metrics were systematically related, simply reflecting their difficulty, in the same way that certain questions are more difficult in academic exams. [4] Channels of Brand Awareness  [edit] There are many ways to generate brand awareness in the consumers. Listed below are four such channels Advertising  is the activity or profession of producing information for promoting the sale of commercial products or services. 5]  Advertising is used through various media to generate brand awareness within consumers. They can be aired as radio ads, television commercials, internet etc. Guerrilla Marketing  tactics allow every small firm to compete with bigger firms by carving out narrow but profitable niches. These tactics include (1) extreme specialization, (2) aiming every effo rt at favourably impressing the customers, (3) providing service that goes beyond the customers expectations, (4) fast response time, (5) quick turnaround of jobs, and (6) working hours that match the customers requirements. The term Guerrilla Marketing is a registered trademark of author Jay Levinson who popularized it through his several Guerrilla books. [6] It is an out of the ordinary way of marketing a product. Low-cost channels can be utilised to generate a high level of interest in the product and create brand awareness. Utilisation of personal contacts is the most popular way of guerrilla marketing. Product Placement is an advertising technique used by companies to subtly promote their products through a non-traditional advertising technique, usually through appearances in film, television, or other media. 6] A formal agreement between the product manufacturer and a media company can be generated through which the media company also receives an economic benefit, usually in the form of a fee. The media company in return will showcase the product through any of the various means they have available to make the brand stand out. Some people, however, consider product placement to be deceptive and une thical. For example, Coca-Cola could pay a given fee to have the title character drinking a Coke, instead of a Pepsi beverage, or Toyota might pay to have one of the characters drive their newest automobile. Through product placement, companies hope that moviegoers will take note of the products used by the characters, and therefore think more strongly about using the products themselves. Social Media is the most contemporary and cost effective way of creating a brand awareness with an online audience. Many companies use social media like facebook, youtube, blogs What is Advertising : The word advertising is derived from the Latin word viz, advertero   ad meaning towards and verto meeting towards and verto meaning. I turn literally specific thing. Simply stated advertising is the art says green. Advertising is a general term for and all forms of publicity, from the cry of the street boy selling newspapers to the most celebrate attention attracts device. The object always is to bring to public notice some articles or service, to create a demand to stimulate buying and in general to bring logethel the man with something to sell and the man who has means or desires to buy. Advertising ha s been defined by different experts. Some of the quoted definition are :   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   American marketing association has defined advertising as any paid form of non personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor. The medium used are print broad cast and direct. Stanton deserves that Advertising consists of all the activities involved in presenting to a group a non- personal, oral or visual openly, sponsored message regarding a product, service, or idea. This message called an advertisement is disseminated through one or more media and is paid for by the identified sponsor. Advertising is any paid form of non – personal paid of presentation of ideas goods or services by an identified sponsor. Advertising is a non- personal paid message of commercial significance about a product, service or company made to a market by an identified sponsor. In developing an advertising programme, one must always start by identifying the market needs and buyer motives and must make five major decisions commonly referred as 5M (mission, money message, media and measurement) of advertising. Basic Features of Advertising On the basis of various definitions it has certain basic features such as : 1. It is a mass non-personal communication. 2. It is a matter of record. 3. It persuades buyers to purchase the goods advertised. 4. It is a mass paid communication. 5. The communication media is diverse such as print (newspapers and magazines) 6. It is also called printed salesmanship because information is spread by means of the written and printed work and pictures so that people may be induced to act upon it. Functions of Advertising For many firms advertising is the dominant element of the promotional mix – particulars for those manufacturers who produce convenience goods such as detergent, non – prescription drugs, cosmetics, soft drinks and grocery products. Advertising is also used extensively by maters of automobiles, home appliances, etc, to introduce new product and new product features its uses its attributes, pt availability etc. Advertising can also help to convince potential buyers that a firms product or service is superior to competitors product in make in quality, in price etc. t can create brand image and reduce the likelihood of brand switching even when competitors lower their prices or offer some attractive incentives. Advertising is particularly effective in certain other spheres too such as : i)  Ã‚  Ã‚  When consumer awareness of products or service is at a minimum. ii)  Ã‚  When sales are increasing for all terms in an industry. iii)  When a product is new and incorporate s technological advance not strong and. iv)  When primary buying motive exists. It performance the following functions : i)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Promotion of sales ii)  Ã‚  Introduction of new product awareness. iii)  Mass production facilitation v)  Carry out research v)  Ã‚  Education of people. TYPES OF ADVERTISING Broadly speaking, advertising may be classified into two categories viz. , product and institutional advertising. a)Product Advertising The main purpose of such advertising is to inform and stimulate the market about the advertisers products of services and to sell these. Thus type of advertising usually promote specific, trended products in such a manner as to make the brands seam more desirable. It is used by business government organization and private non-business organizations to promote the uses features, images and benefits of their services and products. Product advertising is sub-divided into direct action and indirect action advertising, Direct action product advertising wages the buyer to take action at once, ice he seeks a quick response to the advertisement which may be to order the product by mail, or mailing a coupon, or he may promptly purchase in a retail store in response to prince reduction during clearance sale. Product advertising is sub-divided into direct amp; indirect action advertising amp; product advertising aims at informing persons about what a products is what it does, how it is used and where it can be purchased. On the other hand selective advertising is made to meet the selective demand for a particular brand or type is product. b)Institutional Advertising : It is designed to create a proper attitude towards the sellers to build company image or goodwill rather than to sell specific product or service. Its purpose is to create a frame of mind and to implant feeling favourable to the advertisers company. Its assignment is to make friends for the institution or organization. It is sub-divided into three categories : patronage, public, relations and public service institutional advertising. )  Ã‚  In patronage institutional advertising the manufacturer tells his prospects and customer about himself his policies and lives personnel. The appeals to the patronage motivation of buyers. If successful, he convince buyers that his operation entitles him to the money spent by them. ii)  Public relations institutional advertising is used to create a favourable image of the firm among employees, sto ck-holders or the general public. iii)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Public service institutional advertising wages public support. c)Other Types : The other types are as follows : i)  Ã‚  Consumer advertising i)  Ã‚  Comparative advertising iii)  Reminder advertising iv)  Reinforcement advertising ADVERTISING OBJECTIVES The long term objectives of advertising are broad and general, and concern the contribution   advertising should make to the achievement of overall company objectives. Most companies regard advertisingly main objective as hat of proving support to personal selling and other forms of promotion. But advertising is a highly versatile communications tools and may therefore by used for achieving various short and long term objectives. Among these objectives are the following : 1. To do the entire selling job (as in mail order marketing). 2. To introduce a new product (by building brand awareness among potential buyers). 3. To force middlemen to handle the product (pull strategy). 4. To build brand preference 9by making it more difficult for middleman to sell substitutes). 5. To remind users to buy the product (retentive strategy). 6. To publicize some change in marketing strategy (e. g. , a price change, a new model or an improvement in the product). 7. To provide rationalization (i. e. Socially acceptable excuses). 8. To combat or neutralize competitors advertising. . To improve the moral of dealers and/or sales people (by showing that the company is doing its share of promotion). 10. To acquaint buyers and prospects with the new uses of the product (to extend the PLC). BENEFITS The functions of advertisement, and that purpose its ethics, may be discussion below : 1. It leads to cheaper prices. No advertiser could live in the highly competitive arena of mode rn business if his methods of selling were more costly than those of his rivals. 2. It acquaints the public with the features of the goods and advantages which buyers will enjoy. 3. It increases demand for commodities and this results in increased production. Advertising : a)  Creates and stimulates demand opens and expands the markets; b)  Creates goodwill which loads to an increase in sales volume; c)  Reduces marketing costs, particularly product selling costs. d)  Satisfied consumer demands by placing in the market what he needs. 4. It reduces distribution expenses in as much as it plays the part of thousands of salesman at a home. Information on a mass scale relieves the necessity of expenditure on sales promotion staff, and quicker and wider distribution leads to diminishing of the distribution costs. . It ensures the consumers better quality of goods. A good name is the breath of the life to an advertiser. 6. By paying the way for large scale production and increased industrialization, advertising   contributes its quota to the profit of the companies the prosperity of the shareholder the uplifts of the wage earners and the solution of he unempl oyment problem. 7. It raises the standard of living of the general public by impelling it to use to articles of modern types which may add to his material well being. Modern advertising has made the luxuries of yesterday the necessities of today It is a positive creative force in business. It makes two blades of grass grow in the business world where one grew before. 8. It establishes the goodwill of the concern for the test articles produced by it and in course of time they sell like not cakes consumer search for satisfaction of their needs when they purchase goods what they want from its beauty, superiority, economy, comfort, approval, popularity, power, safety, convenience, sexual gratification and so on. The manufactures therefore tries to improve this goodwill and reputation by knowing the buyer behaviour. To sum up it may be said that advertising aims at committing the producers, educating the consumer, supplementing the salesman converting the producer and the dealer to eliminate the competitor, but above all it is a link between the produce and the consumer. WHY amp; WHEN TO ADVERTISE Advertising as a tool to marketing not only reaches those who buy , but also those whose opinions or authority is counted for example a manufacturer of marble tiles and building boards advertises not only to people who intend to build houses but also to architect and engineers. While the manufacturers of pharmaceuticals products advertise to doctors as well as to the general public. At time it is necessary for a manufacturer or a concern to advertise things which it does not sell but which when sold stimulates the sales of its own product. There are concerns like electric heaters, iron etc. because the use of these increases the demand for their products. Advertising should be used only when it promises to bring good result more economically and efficiently as compared to other means of selling. There are goods for which much time and efforts are required in creating a demand by sending salesman to prospective buyers than by simply advertising them. In the early days of the cash register in America it was sold by specially trained salesman who called on the prospective users and had the difficult task of convincing them that they could no longer carry on with the old methods, and that they urgently needed a cash register. In our country certain publishers have found it less costly to sell their books by sending salesman from house to house among prospective buyers than to advertise them. In these two examples the cost of creating demand would be too high if attempted by advertising alone under such circumstances advertising is used to make the salesman acceptable to the people they call upon to increase the confidence of the public in the house. Naturals when there are good profits competitors will be attracted and they should be kicked out as and when sufficient capital is available by advertising on a large scale. Immediate result may not justify the increased expenditure but it will no doubt secure future sales. DESIGNING ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN : An advertising is an organized series of advertising messages. It has been defined as a planned, co-ordinate series of promotional efforts built around a central theme and designed to reach a specified goals. In other words, it is an orderly planned effort consisting of related but self – contained and independent advertisements. The campaign may appear in one more media . it has single theme or keynote idea and a single objective or goal. Thus, a unified theme of content provides psychological continuity throughout the campaign while visual and oral similarity provide physical continuity. In short run, all campaign want pre-determined psychological reaction in the long run, practically all campaigns have sales goal. The series of advertisements used in the campaign must be integrated with the sales promotional efforts and with the activities of the sales force. Campaign vary in length some may run only for a few days, other for weeks, yet other for a season or the entire year. Usually a range of 3 to 6 months includes many campaigns. Many factors influences campaign length such as competitors advertising media, policies, seasonal falls curves of the product involved, the size of the advertising funds, campaign objectives and the nature of the advertisers marketing programme. OBJECTIVES OF CAMPAIGN The advertising campaign, especially those connected with the consumers aims at achieving these objectives : i)  Ã‚  Ã‚  To announce a new product or improve product. ii)  Ã‚  To hold consumers patronage against intensified campaign use. iii)  To inform consumers about a new product use. iv)  To teach consumers how to use product. )  Ã‚  To promote a contest or a premium offer. vi)  To establish a new trade regional, and vii)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To help solve a coca regional problem. The institutional advertising campaign on the other hand, have these objectives. i)  Ã‚  Ã‚  To create a corporate personality or image. ii)  Ã‚  To build a company prestige. iii)  To keep the company name before the public . iv)  To emphasize company services and facilities. v)  Ã‚  To enable company salesman to see top executive consistently when making sales calls, and vi)  To increase friendliness and goodwill towards the company. Developing the campaign programmes. The advertising campaigns are prepared by the advertising agencies, which work an behalf of their clients who manufacture product or service enterprises, which have services to sell. The word campaign is used because advertising agencies approach their task with a sum Blanca of military fanfare in which one frequently hears words like target audience logistics, zero in and tactics and strategy etc. The account executive co-ordinates the work in a campaign. The creation of an advertising campaign starts with an exploration of consumers habits and psychology in relation to the product. This requires the services of statistical trained in survey techniques and of others trained in social psychology. Statisticians select samples for survey which are done by trained interviewers who visits individuals, included in the sample and ask question to find out about their taste and habits. This enquiry often leads to a change in a familiar product. For instance bathing soap may come in several new colours or cigarette in a new packet or talcum powder in another size. Such interviews are often quite essential to find out the appeal of advertising message for a product that would be most effective with consumers. David Ogilvy describes a consumers survey to find out the most meaningful benefit in which women are interested when they buy a face cream. The largest preference as given to Cleans deep into pores followed in order of importance by prevent dryness, is a complete beauty treatment, recommended by skin doctors makes skin look younger contains estrogenic hormones, pasteurized for purity, prevent skin form aging, smooth our wrinkles ogilvy concludes, form this voting come one of Helena Rubinsteins most successful face creams. We christened it deep cleanser, thus, building the winning form into name of the product. After getting the data the account executive puts together the essential elements of his clients brief, interprets the research findings and draws up what he calls the advertising strategy. STAGE IN ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN Several steps are required to developed an advertising campaign the number of stages and exact order in which they are carried out may vary according to an organisations resources, the nature of its product and the types of audiences to be reached. The major stages/step are : 1. Identifying and analyzing the advertising. 2. Defining advertising objects. 3. Creating the advertising platform. 4. Determining the advertising appropriation. 5. Selection media plan. 6. Creating the advertising message. 7. Evaluating the effectiveness of advertising. 8. Organizing of advertising campaign. 1. Identifying amp; Analyzing the Advertising target : Under this step it is to decided as to whom is the firm trying to reach with   the message. The advertising target is the group of people towards which advertisements are aimed at four this purpose complete information about the market target i. e. the location and geographical location of the people, the distribution of age, income, sex, educational level, and consumers attitudes regarding purchase and use both of the advertising product and competing products is needed with better knowledge of market target, effective advertising campaign can be developed on the other hand, if the advertising target is not properly identified and analyzed the campaign is does likely to be effective. . Determining the advertising objectives : The objectives of advertisement must be specifically and clearly defined in measurable terms such as to communicate specific qualities about a particulars product to gain a certain degree of penetration in a definite audience of a given size during a given period of time, increase sales by a certain percentage or increase the firms market shares.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The goals of advertising may be to : i)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Create a favourable company image by acquainting the public with the services offered available to the employees and its achievements. i)  Ã‚  Create consumers or distributor awareness by encouraging requests providing information about the types of products sold; providing information about the benefits to be gained from use of the companys products or services; and indicating how product (or services) can be used; iii)  Encourage immediate sales by encouraging potential purchasers through special sales contests, getting recommendation of professional people about companys products etc. iv)  Ã‚  It secures action by the reader through associating ideas, repetition of the same name in different contexts, immediate action appeal. . Creating the Advertising platform : An advertising platform consists of the basic issues or selling points that an advertiser wishes to include in the advertising campaign. A single adve rtisement in an advertising campaign may contain one or more issues in the platform. A motorcycle producers advertising platform should contain issues which are of importance to consumers filling and such issues also be those which the competitive product do not posses. 4. Determining the Advertising Appropriation: The advertising appropriation is the total amount of money which   marketer allocates. For advertising for a specific time period. Determining the campaign budget involves estimating now much it will cost to achieve the campaigns objectives. If the campaign objectives are profit relating and stated quantitatively, then the amount of the campaign budget is determined by estimating the proposed campaigns effectiveness in attaining them. If campaigns object is to build a particular type of company image, then there is little basis for predicting either the campaigns effectiveness or determining the budget required. 5. Selecting the Media : Media selection is an important since it costs time space and money various factors influence this selection, the most fundamental being the nature of the target market segment, the type of the product and the cost involved. The distinctive characteristics of various media are also important. Therefore management should focus its attention on media compatibility with advertising objectives. | Media| Form| 1. | Press Advertising or Print|   | i)| Newspapers| City, Small town, Sundays, Daily, weekly, Fortnightly, quarterlies, financial and annuals, English, vernacular or regional languages. ii)| Magazines| General or special, illustrated or otherwise, English, Hindi, Regional language. | iii)| Trade amp; Technical Journals, Industrial year books, commercial, directories, telephone,   Directories, references books amp; annuals. | Circulated all over the country and among the industrialist and business magnates. | 2. | Direct Mail| Circulars, catalogues, leaflets, brochures, booklets , folders, colanders, blotters, diaries amp; other printed material. | 3. | Outdoor or Traffic| Poster and bills on walls, railways stations platforms outside public buildings trains, buses. 4. | Broadcast or radio and T. V. | Spot, Sectional or national trade cost| 5. | Publicity| Movie Slides and films non theatrical and documentary films metal plates and signs attaches to trees. | 6. | House to house| Sampling , couponing, free gifts, novelties, demonst-rations. | 7. | Dealer aids| Counter and widows display   demonstration given by retailer or the advertises goods. | 8. | Internet| Today, Internet is a big spot for advertising. | So these are the media of the advertising campaign of the selecting of the media. 6. Creating the Advertising Messages : This is an important stage of advertising campaign. The contents of the message has to be very carefully drafted in the advertisement. Characteristics of person in the advertising target influence the message content and form. An advertisers must use words, symbols and illustration that are meaningful, familiar and attractive to those persons. The type of media also influence the content and form of the message. 7. Evaluating the Effectiveness of Advertising : The effectiveness of advertising is measured for a variety of reasons : a)  Ã‚  To determine whether a campaign   accomplished its advertising objects. )  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To evaluate the relative effectiveness of several advertisements to ascertain which copy, illustrations or layout is   best. c)  Ã‚  To determine the strengths and weaknesses of various media and media plans. In other words, measuring advertising effectiveness is needed to determine whether proposed advertisement should be used and if they will be no w they might be improved; and whether going campaign should be stopped, continued or changed. In accomplishing these purposes, pretests and post test are conducted. The former tests before exposing target consumers to advertisements and the letter after consumers have been exposed to advertisements and the letter after consumers have been exposed to advertisements. For an effective advertising programme, the advertising manager requires a basic understanding of the medium that is going to carry it. For effectively using advertising the management must test advertising to know which of the advertisement to know which of the advertisement have proved profitable and why as compared to others. - Customer satisfaction From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Customer satisfaction, a term frequently used in  marketing, is a measure of how products and services supplied by a company meet or surpass customer expectation. Customer satisfaction is defined as the number of customers, or percentage of total customers, whose reported experience with a firm, its products, or its services (ratings) exceeds specified satisfaction goals. [1]  In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, 71 percent responded that they found a customer satisfaction metric very useful in managing and monitoring their businesses. 1] It is seen as a key performance indicator within business and is often part of a  Balanced Scorecard. In a competitive marketplace where businesses compete for customers, customer satisfaction is seen as a key differentiator and increasingly has become a key element of business strategy. [2] Within organizations, customer satisfaction ratings can have powerful effects. They focus employees on the importance of fulfilling customers’ expectations. Furthermore, when these ratings dip, they warn of problems that can affect sales and profitability. . . These metrics quantify an important dynamic. When a brand has loyal customers, it gains positive word-of-mouth marketing, which is both free and highly effective. [1] Therefore, it is essential for businesses to effectively manage customer satisfaction. To be able do this, firms need reliable and representative measures of satisfaction. In researching satisfaction, firms generally ask customers whether their product or service has met or exceeded expectations. Thus, expectations are a key factor behind satisfaction. When customers have high expectations and the reality falls short, they will be disappointed and will likely rate their experience as less than satisfying. For this reason, a luxury resort, for example, might receive a lower satisfaction rating than a budget motel—even though its facilities and service would be deemed superior in absolute terms. [1] The importance of customer satisfaction diminishes when a firm has increased  bargaining power. For example,  cell phone  plan providers, such as  ATamp;T  and  Verizon, participate in an industry that is an  oligopoly, where only a few suppliers of a certain product or service exist. As such, many cell phone plan contracts have a lot of  fine print  with provisions that they would never get away if there were, say, a hundred cell phone plan providers, because customer satisfaction would be way too low, and customers would easily have the option of leaving for a better contract offer. There is a substantial body of empirical literature that establishes the benefits of customer satisfaction for firms. You can check out the retails shops using this link http://www. sony. co. in/section/retailshops Here is what I found RAJEEV ELETRONICS P. S. 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Quoted MRP is for 1 unit of the product. ) + Compar e * KLV-32BX350 *  »BRAVIA Engine 3â„ ¢ *  »Clear resolution enhancer *  »BRAVIA Sync Standard Retail PriceMRP  Rs  27,900(MRP inclusive of all taxes. Quoted MRP is for 1 unit of the product. + Compare * KLV-26BX350 *  »BRAVIA Engine 3â„ ¢ *  »Clear resolution enhancer *  »BRAVIA Sync Standard Retail PriceMRP  Rs  22,900(MRP inclusive of all taxes. Quoted MRP is for 1 unit of the product. ) + Compare * KLV-22BX350 *  »BRAVIA Engine 3â„ ¢ *  »Clear resolution enhancer *  »BRAVIA Sync Standard Retail PriceMRP  Rs  15,900(MRP inclusive of all taxes. Quoted MRP is for 1 unit of the product. ) + Compare ledlllllllllll LED DETAIL ON ONLINE FROM WEB SITE (http://www. sony. co. in/product/kdl-46hx925/overview) Utilizing Customer Feedback *

Health Care Reform and Future Trend Personal Statement

Health Care Reform and Future Trend - Personal Statement Example I further propose that if health care was provided to these people, then financial suffering could have been prevented. These monetary problems prevent people from receiving essential treatment for illnesses. There is clearly a problem with the current Medicare program when people suffer from diseases simply because of their financial status. Other Medicare programs have to face many hardships while trying to apply a universal take over of every present health care system, which have generally led to extremely high prices, and a low quality of service. Therefore I believe that the whole nationalization of every presently used heath care service would not be necessary, nevertheless only a duel umbrella system which can incorporate uninsured Americans into the present health care system under new federal rules and regulations would be ideal for the Medicare program. I suggest the umbrella system as this umbrella system would let people who at present have an insurance plan to carry on their insurance plan. And those who are uninsured would be placed into a new nationalized health package which could be a HMO type system, which will reduce the costs. The lack of health insurance of a lot of people have a severe harmful consequences and economic costs not just for those who are uninsured but also for their family, the neighborhood they reside in, and the entire state. In my opinion, the primary problem is that health care considered to be a commodity which is marketed instead of a social service. A lot of people get tax-free health benefits from the company they work for, the companies pay insurers a portion of the premiums (Tooke 2003). However not every company provides these benefits. To my knowledge, it is strictly voluntary for employers. In the periodical "Employee Benefits," the problem for many workers is that not all employer-provided health insurance is equal, and many employers offer no coverage at all. Although 53 percent of private sector firms offer health coverage to their employees, and virtually all firms with 100 or more employees sponsor a health plan, small businesses are far less likely to do so (Cooper 2000), After reviewing the above mentioned problem it can be concluded firms which have a small number of employees most of them are uninsured thus I propose a single-payer system may be more affordable as it would minimize extra costs of administrative, profits and needless repetition. Moreover, it would allow the company of an overall budget and a reasonable and equal distribution of resources. Secondly, I propose that innovative technologies would be scarce under a single-payer system. Lastly, I believe that a single-payer system is the same as socialized medicine, even though a national program may be

The Interrelationship Between Music and Program in Vivaldis Violin Essay

The Interrelationship Between Music and Program in Vivaldis Violin Concerto in F minor, Op. 8, no. 3 Autumn (The Four Seasons) (1725) - Essay Example .The ritornello form used in the â€Å"Autumn† concerto is clear. The tutti section in the first movement outlines the theme and is repeated numerous times in variation throughout the movement. The solo sections embellish on the main theme as well as moving into more free-flowing segments. The Italian Concerto format of three movements (fast, slow, fast) is a basic standard for the period and Vivaldi adheres to that model. Key changes in the Baroque period, from minor to major are made more rapidly than examples of concerti from the latter 18th Century where composers took more time in both tutti and solo sections before shifting to alternate keys. Phrases are often played in forte and repeated in piano; this style is a signature of Vivaldi in many of his concerti. In the Baroque style, often the solo sections of a concerto are accompanied by a simple bass line, or ground bass, perhaps with incidental strings or other instruments and usually harpsichord. Vivaldi follows this convention. The solo violin is left with little background from the orchestra, leaving more room for free flowing play with the theme and variations upon it. The opening to Vivaldi’s concerto is lively and athletic. In four quarter time, it has a quality reminiscent of folk dance. There is a leaping feature to the subject with strongly accenting downbeats. The violin enters, strictly following the theme but turns a portion of the theme upside down. In the next solo section the violin takes a series of leaps and arpeggios as it moves toward a slightly slower and more chromatic subject. Slowing pace in the middle of an allegro movement deviates from the standard form of the day. Vivaldi’s style of composition varies from other composers in that there is less str ictness in the solo sections or adherence to the original theme. Instead, the violin is left to fly through arpeggios and runs adding to the strong rhythms and rich texture of the work. The second movement is slow and simple, using the harpsichord as the main instrument accompanied by quiet strings in chromatic lines and basso continuo. â€Å"Along with the emphasis on a single melody and bass line came the practice of basso continuo, a method of musical notation in which the melody and bass line are written out and the harmonic filler indicated in a type of shorthand.†1 The third movement opens with a vigorous theme, with a strong â€Å"leaping† rhythm in triple time. In the opening solo section, the violin turns the theme upside down in contrast to the tutti and with harshly struck bow work, which adds to the rustic flavour of the music. As in the first movement, ritornello is used to bring the theme back throughout the movement, embellished by the resolute solos of the violin. Again, there is a slowing of the music before one final and triumphant recapitulation of the theme. In context of the poem, Vivaldi’s â€Å"Autumn† accurately describes the verses. From the opening dance of the peasants to the slower paced section in the first movement that describes the â€Å"full liquor of Bacchus†, the music complements the words. As well, the rich texture of the theme and harmonics in major thirds reflects the colors of the season. However, the solo sections break from strict Baroque form by allowing the solo instrument to take more liberty with variation and free form phrasing, within the work. This shift away from the theme allows Vivaldi to â€Å"play† with the images in the poem invoking dance and even the movement of wind in the trees. The second movement reflects the sleeping peasants. The slow, chromatic strings and the quiet harpsichord invoke a clear sense of a calm night. The third movement, with its rousing open ing theme

Knowledge Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Knowledge Management - Assignment Example The two dimensions of knowledge capture strategy are tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge deals with unconscious internalized knowledge that person is not aware of. Explicit knowledge refers to conscious knowledge the person can use to communicate with others; it is prà ©cised and can be formally articulated (Orsoc, 2003). The employees that are going to retire have different profiles. The first employee is highly outgoing, has good verbal communication skills. The second employee is shy and likes structure work settings. His teamwork abilities and skills are low. The person is efficient and has other good qualities that have helped the organizations over the years. His strength lies in explicit knowledge. The obstacle I anticipate with the second employee is that he might be unwilling to participate in any type of voluntary knowledge transfer program. For a knowledge capture strategy to be effective the participants must be motivated. A way to motivate employee o ne is by offering the person a compensation bonus of 25% the base salary. The employee would spend 10 hours a week of his 40 hour shift implementing knowledge capture strategies with the staff. The first employee is a person that is tailored made for knowledge capture strategies. The employees’ strength can be used to create a program that implements multiple strategies. This employee should be retained to increase the firm’s employee customer retention. The proposal is for a three year part time knowledge transfer program. As the leader of the knowledge capture program employee B can used varies knowledge capture strategies simultaneously. Two of them are cross project learning and mentor-protà ©gà © relationships. The employee would participate in five project teams in all their meetings as a silent observer. He would then provide them with feedback at the beginning of the next meeting. Another of his role is to serve as consultant for the five project teams. The

To Improve The SMART Technologies Inc. Turn Over Growth In The Long Research Paper

To Improve The SMART Technologies Inc. Turn Over Growth In The Long Run - Research Paper Example I believe that the preceding information when followed will be very important in ensuring the success of the company and help it remain at the top of the game. I therefore submit this non- legally binding document with the full knowledge that its implementation is at management’s discretion. I restate that any of the recommendations will help improve the company’s performance. Respectfully Submitted By TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 4 Introduction 5 Background and the purpose      6 Methodology 7 Findings – discussion 8 Conclusion   14 Recommendation 14 Works Cited    15 Appendix 16 Abstract       It is axiomatic to argue that the quest for increased revenue to firms has no end. To imperatively discuss the above, it is crucial and prime to digest, conceptualize and internalize the dichotomy in the unembellished key word ‘Turn over’, which is the amount of money generated from the company’s total sales. This non-monolithic term is commo n in myriad of professional and academic studies when it comes to understanding the company’s performance. ... New companies emerge with interesting and appealing products and any company that cannot do this will lag and in worst scenarios face a shut down. SMART Technology Inc. is not exceptional. Through this research, some of the questions which come up when discussing ways of helping SMART technologies Inc. increase its turnover are tackled and they include; why turnover growth is vital to the company, how the turnover can be increased in the company and finally some of the challenges that can sojourn it from achieving the same. These areas of scrutiny lead to a number of findings which are discussed in the discussion area in relation to literature. The paper also presents a number of recommendations in relation to the findings of the research. Introduction Smart technology which has been in operation for twenty five years was founded in 1986 by David Martin and Nancy Knowlton in New York. The company was distributing projectors from Canada to America and this was the major products which generated revenue. The generated revenue was directed towards research and building of a white board with the computer. The company that boosts as being defined by innovation always desire to improve the learning environments globally. The company’s customers include teacher’s students and businessmen who have always admitted that SMART Technologies Inc. have really helped new ways of learning and collaborating. The company created the first world interactive whiteboard in 1991 which is being used by over 40 Million students in over 175 countries across the globe and remains the world’s leading producer and supplier of the same (SMART Technologies Inc 1).They admit that they are the core values of excellence and innovation

Problems with standardized testing Research Paper

Problems with standardized testing - Research Paper Example The reasons have gone from an equalizer of chance to an apparatus of isolation used to partition by insights, as well as socio-investment status, riches, and benefit. In 2001, when the No Child Left Behind Act was made there was such an extraordinary attention set on standardized testing that it is presently essential to the accomplishment of American understudies to discriminatingly analyze the testing framework and adjust any imperfections that may be available. The NCLB Act has turned into a significant some piece of state funded training change by striving to meet one real objective: arriving at 100% capability of all gatherings of scholars in America by the year 2014. This objective wont be effectively accomplished and may not be conceivable to be attained at all unless there are remedies and updates made to the demonstration and the way the projects are authorized in schools crosswise over America. Training is a significant a piece of the accomplishment of our nation and with an Act like this being such a predominant compel in instruction it needs to be as near impeccable as could be expected under the circumstances. The No Child Left Behind Act made by President George W. Shrub in 2001 has created a few significant changes inside state funded schools in regards to financing, testing, and the reporting of test effects. Regardless of the negative impacts the Act has created, with the utilization of individualized testing (less attention on standardized testing) and distinctive regulations in regards to financing, the Act could help schools accomplish the objectives they were proposed to meet. At the point when Horace Mann created a test to oversee to a gathering of understudies in the 1800s, his expectations were to make judgments about how the scholar was doing at their current level and figure out whether they might be fit for propelling to the larger amount. The persons prosperity on the test had no pessimistic

Human Capital - Benchmarking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Capital - Benchmarking - Essay Example However, many of these benefits are dwindling within the United Airlines Company along with the number of satisfied employees. Talks of terminating the existing pension plans began in 2004. While the plan was highly supported by United Airlines administrators and investors, others were not quite as happy with the possibility. William Swelbar, president of Eclat Consulting in Arlington, VA, believes the investors would like to have seen the pension plans cut before they had to, as though they were letting someone else do their dirty work: â€Å"The question is, will employees be smart enough not to burn the furniture?† (Allison, 2004a). These types of worries imply that the company understands and acknowledges the sinking morale that can come with such a decision, and is considering making that decision despite this knowledge. Causing further distress among the employees is the ongoing arguments surrounding these terminations of the pension plans. Since announcing the possibility that cutting these plans would be the only way out of bankruptcy for United Airlines, several other companies and financial groups have fought with United Airlines regarding the legality of such a decision. The Labor Department, along with the union representing the airlines flight attendants, the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corp., and the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, has filed objections to many of the events taking place among the administrators of United Airlines: some of these objections came about after United Airlines quietly removed three executives who were vocally against cutting the pension plans and named the airlines as the fiduciary. (Allison, 2004b). Although the airline has since named an independent fiduciary and made some payments into the pension plans, the amount of insecurity fol lowing such allegations is a cause of major unrest among the employees of United Airlines.

Final Exam Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Final Exam - Article Example This implies that the approach offers a more holistic outlook of the presidency, noting that it takes different variables into account. The third advantage is that it explicates the historical changes in the boundaries of presidential power. The fourth advantage is that it explicates what the president is mandated to do – according to customs and law. The disadvantage of this approach is that the approach does not explain the activities and the roles that the president engages in, irrespective of the fact that it defines the roles that the president does not take. Secondly, this approach has little explanation of the reasons behind the roles of the president and the importance of the roles he takes – within the specified boundaries. This implies that the rationales underlying presidential duties are not explored under the model; therefore it limits the understanding of its audience. The psychological approach focuses on the psychological qualities of a president and the relationship between these qualities to his responsibilities. The advantages of this approach include that it explains what presidents do and the reasons behind these actions; it explains presidential conduct, decision-making; organization of staffs and outcomes, which expresses the importance of certain psychological qualities (Bowles, 1999). The second advantage is that it compels the audience to evaluate presidential candidates and office holders, on the basis of many areas, including their personal and personality attributes; this outlook offers a micro-perspective conception to the study of the presidency (Robert & Zeckhauser, 2011). The disadvantages of this approach include that it emphasizes the personality traits of presidents and does not offer attention to any other factors. The second disadvantage is that the approach does not pay any attention to the laws, the constitution, the customs and other significant sets of values and provisions, which are instrumental in the

Prime Minister Essay Example for Free

Prime Minister Essay As he walked up the rickety stairs to the graveyard, his hand flaking the paint off the banister, listening to the thunderstorm overhead, Jake felt apprehensive. He was startled by the rustling of the autumn leaves in the bitter wind and the dancing of their shadows cast by the orange street light. He had left his friends house in a good mood but that was long gone as he sensed the peril that he was in. It was back. A creature had been following him on or off for weeks now and Jake could hear the sound of two extra footsteps a few metres behind him. He turned around but, as always, there was no one there. He knew he was not imagining it, but he didnt want to tell his family or friends as they would just laugh at him. While turning round once more he and thought he caught a glimpse of something, too big for a dog but too small for a human. He broke into a run and knew that his follower had done the same. He looked round and saw that his assailant was now making no effort to hide. The ground was being eaten up by this monster like creature that was pursuing him and he knew there was no hope. His screams for help filled the air but it was too late for there to be anyone out to hear him. He looked around for any means of protection and saw a stake with a note about the up-and-coming Easter egg hunt in the graveyard. Wrenching the stake from the ground, he turned to face his attacker; seeing how close the monster was too late. The creature was right at the end of the stake and as he collided with it, the stake went straight through his right shoulder. As Jake looked down at the victim that was now pinned to the ground by the stake he saw its coal-black cape, its milky-white fangs and his blond hair and blue eyes in the reflection off its pale white eyes. He started to run, as what he saw was a creature that he had thought only appeared in nightmares. It was a vampire! Â  As the sweat ran down his wrinkled face, the Prime Minister struggled to answer the last question concerning the rising number of murders in populated towns and cities. He knew that this new problem was going to be hard to solve and could cost him his job but he would do his best. He left the interview in a hurry, trying to get away from all the questions. As he finally got out the door, ignoring the crowd of reporters with their cameras flashing at him, his personal assistant rushed to his side and told him that he had urgent news from the Minister of Defence. He walked, wearily, but briskly, to his office and picked up the phone to his colleague. Prime Minister, I have urgent news regarding our current problem, he explained with a tone of graveness in his voice, We have video evidence of one of the creatures that are committing these assaults. Creatures? the Prime Minister asked, wondering if his colleague had made a mistake. Yes. We appear to have the first ever sighting of vampires in the world. I think we should try to get hold of one of them to question it. Yes, of course, please keep me informed of any more news that comes in, the Prime Minister stuttered incredulously, his face turning white at the thought of vampires on the loose. He knew that whatever it was that had to be done had to be done quickly, or else the whole population was in danger. The Minister of Defence had had a hard day. His phone had been ringing all day with enquiries from police stations all over the country. He was glad that he had finally found out the nature of the problem that the nation was facing. He knew that the Prime Minister was under extreme pressure but he was seriously losing faith in his ability to cope with this crisis. He was looking older every day, his good looks gone and his famous, lush brown hair was now grey and clearly thinning. The stress of his job was taking its toll and some of his recent decisions had been so questionable that the Press was having a field day. He knew that his doubts were shared, not only by the members of the Cabinet but by a large section of the population. As the phone started ringing once more, he cursed and picked it up knowing that it would be from another Police Officer in some part of the country asking for advice on what to do with another victim of an assault. That is why he was surprised by what was said.

The Theory of the Forms as Portrayed Throughout Plato`s Dialogues Essay Example for Free

The Theory of the Forms as Portrayed Throughout Plato`s Dialogues Essay Prologue to Plato’s Theory of Forms Plato’s Theory of Forms suggests the dichotomy between the material world and the world of ideas. In the Republic, Plato clearly delineates the difference between the two by first arguing that the material world, or the world which we live in, is not a perfect world and one that is full of error. On the other hand, the world of ideas is the perfect world. In such world, the Forms exist. The forms are the perfect entities upon which the structure or the essence of the material objects in the world are based. That is, the forms serve as the foundation not only of the physical structure of the objects in the world but also of the true composition of things apart from their corporeal composition. The forms correspond to the â€Å"blueprints† of the worldly objects. The argument of Plato that the forms are the bases for the essence and, hence, the composition of things consequently implies the argument that the forms have a higher degree of significance than the worldly objects. Part of the reason to this is the notion that without these forms the corresponding corporeal objects in the material world will not come into existence. Thus, the primacy of the forms is held with significant value throughout the philosophy of Plato. Moreover, Plato argues that one cannot exactly derive the essence of things in the material objects themselves for the reason that these objects do not inherently have in them their â€Å"essence†. Although to a certain degree one may be inclined to claim that the worldly objects manifest the essence they intrinsically hold through the use of the sense, Plato thinks otherwise. One reason to this argument is the Platonic belief that our senses cannot give us a full and accurate account of the nature of things. Though our senses of perception may provide us with immediate perception on the objects which are within the proximity of our consciousness, Plato contends that our senses are so limited that we cannot actually grasp in full detail what it is that these objects hold in themselves. Further, even if we are able to sensibly acquire the sensory manifestation of these objects, it remains that we are still bereft of the essence of these objects because they do not have in them the essence that provides for the very structure of their existence. However, we must be reminded that Plato suggests that man essentially holds within him the genuine form of knowledge and the understanding of the world. This is what man basically possesses within him, something which is so intrinsic that it cannot have been originally from beyond man himself. Further, knowledge for Plato is a type of recollection wherein each individual is reminded of the forms through his or her sensory experience of the objects in the world. In his allegory of the cave, Plato further strengthens his claim on the primacy of the forms and the failure of the conventions set forth by the senses to provide us with the knowledge on the essence of things. Citing that human beings are like prisoners in a cave who have not seen the â€Å"reality† of the objects that they merely perceive as shadows, Plato goes on to argue that we ought to be relinquished from such a fixed state. Consequently, once man finds himself liberated from the chains that have tied him down inside the cave, he then can begin to ascend out of the cave and into the world â€Å"outside†. The transformation does not easily arrive at a point of full realization for the reason that man’s eyes will apparently be hurt by the light coming from the sun. Thus, it can be emphasized that Plato suggests that the process of acquiring true knowledge is one which is not an easy task and may hurt the sensibilities of man. Part of the reason to this is the fact that man throughout the course of his life has been so acquainted with the seeming knowledge of things given to him through convention that he tends to easily accept what is offered by his senses without even beginning to question the validity of these sensory experiences. Nevertheless, Plato holds that our sensory experiences also hold an initial role in the process of realizing genuine knowledge. It is through our very experiences that we get immediate understanding of the empirical existence of objects and that these events serve as the starting point of the far more noble task of obtaining true knowledge beyond the confines of human convention. For the most part of Plato’s theoretical framework on the essence of objects and the acquisition of true knowledge, one can begin to assess these concepts in terms of their validity through logic. That is, if indeed what we are merely able to grasp through sensory experiences are those which are simply based on the corporeal existence of objects and not strictly on their â€Å"essential† level, the question remains as to how exactly will we, as human beings, be able to arrive at true knowledge. Or far more importantly, the more fundamental question is on how we can be able to even begin the â€Å"painstaking† task of gaining the essence of things. If we are to adopt Plato’s scheme in arriving at the understanding of the forms in the world of forms, one should critically assess the measures that must be done and the goals that must be met in the long run. Having this as guidance will lessen sensory deterrence to the task of grasping the forms. In conclusion, Plato’s theory on the distinction between the world of forms and the visible or material world is one which sharply demarcates the limits of the senses. It brings into light the argument that human beings, as essentially endowed with sensory capabilities, cannot escape the error brought forth by the limits of the senses. Nevertheless, even with the imperfectness of man’s senses, one has no other starting point in advancing a grander goal than through these basic senses. The world of ideas may or may not actually exist, but the far more important question is whether indeed the material world cannot provide us the essence of things and that beyond the sense everything is in perfect state. Socratic Forms Socrates believes that correct answers to ‘What is F?’ questions specify forms; forms are the objects of definition where, as we have seen, definitions are real definitions. The ontological correlates of real definitions are real essences, non-linguistic universals that explain why things are as they are. Anything that is gold, for example, has the real essence of gold and is gold precisely because it has that real essence. So, as Socrates says, the one thing by which all Fs are F is a form (Euthyphro 5d1–5; Meno 72c7). Or again, he says that the form of piety is some one thing, the same in (en; Eu. 5d1–2; cf. Ch. 159a1–2, 158e7) everything that is pious; it is that feature of things by which they are pious. On the account I have been suggesting, Socrates offers an epistemological argument for the existence of forms: the possibility of knowledge requires explanation, and this, in turn, requires the existence of forms—real properties and kinds. He also offers a metaphysical one over many arguments for the existence of forms: the existence of many Fs requires the existence of some one thing, the form of F, in virtue of which they are F.[i] David Armstrong has usefully distinguished between realist and semantic one over many arguments.21 Realist one over many arguments posit universals to explain sameness of nature; if a group of objects are all F, they are F in virtue of sharing a genuine property, the property of F. (A predicate nominalist, by contrast, would say that they are all F because the predicate ‘F’ is true of them all; we need not postulate a genuine property that they all share.) Semantic one over many arguments posits universals to explain the meanings of general terms and, indeed, universals just are the meanings of those terms. On the account of Socrates that I have provided, he offers not a semantic but a realist one over many arguments. For, as we have seen, he wants to know not the meanings of general terms, but the properties in virtue of which things are as they are. If forms are properties whose range and nature are determined by explanatory considerations rather than by considerations about meaning, then they are not meanings, if meanings are taken to be something other than properties conceived in realist fashion. But might Socrates view forms as meanings, and take (some) meanings to be properties? He presumably would do so if he accepted a referential theory of meaning. However, it has been cogently argued that Socrates takes the virtue terms to be non-synonymous but co-referential, so he cannot consistently accept a referential theory of meaning.[ii] But is Socrates inconsistent? Or does he confusedly view forms not only as properties but also as meanings, where meanings are taken to be something other than properties? It is difficult to be sure, since he does not discuss semantic questions. But so far as I can see, he does not suggest that forms play any semantic role.[iii] If Socrates relies on a realist one over many arguments, then he presumably takes every property to be a form. To be sure, he does not explicitly say how many forms there are; as Aristotle says, Socrates is primarily interested in the virtues. But he never suggests a principle that restricts forms to a subclass of properties; and he sometimes explains why each of the virtues is some one thing, and so a form, by appealing to quite heterogeneous sorts of cases.[iv] Although Socrates seems to believe that every property is a form, he is not committed to the view that every predicate denotes a form. For, again, forms are explanatory properties, and not every predicate denotes an explanatory property. In addition to suggesting that Socratic forms are universals conceived as explanatory properties, and that on Socrates’ view knowledge of them is necessary for having any knowledge at all, Aristotle also claims that Socrates did not take forms to be either non-sensible or separate. I turn now to these claims. One might argue that Aristotle is wrong to say that Socrates did not take forms to be non-sensible; on the ground that Socrates routinely rejects answers to ‘What is F?’ questions that are phrased in terms of behavior or action-types. Moreover, at least in the case of the virtues he seems to favor accounts that are phrased in terms of certain states of the soul and these, it might be thought, are not observable. It might then be tempting to infer that Socrates believes that a correct answer to a ‘What is F?’ question must specify a non-observable property, a property not definable in observational terms. However, although Socrates regularly rejects answers to ‘What is F?’ questions that are phrased in observational terms, he never says that they fail because they are so phrased. They fail, as we have seen, because they are too narrow or too broad, or because they are not explanatory; but Socrates does not link these failures to the fact that the answers are phrased in observational terms. He leaves open the possibility that although the proposed accounts fail, some other account phrased in observational terms might be satisfactory. This, however, is enough to vindicate Aristotle if he means only that Socrates does not explicitly say that forms are non-sensible, and so in that sense is not committed to the claim that they are; and that seems to be all Aristotle means.[v] What, now, about separation? Discussions of separation are difficult, partly because ‘separation’ is used differently by different people. I shall follow Aristotles lead and say that A is separate from B just in case A can exist without B—that is, just in case A can exist whether or not B exists or, equivalently, just in case A exists independently of B.[vi] Separation so defined is a modal notion; if A is separate from B, A can exist whether or not B exists. (Hence A can be separate from B even if A never actually exists when B does not.) Separation so defined is also a relational notion: to be separate is always to be separate from something. In the case of forms, the relevant ‘something’ is sensible particulars (Met. 1086b4, 8).[vii] So Socratic forms are separate just in case they can exist whether or not there are any corresponding sensible particulars. If forms are universals, then to say that they are separate is to say that they can exist uninstantiated by the corresponding sensible particulars.[viii] Socrates never explicitly says or denies that forms are separate; nor do his ways of characterizing forms seem to commit him one way or the other. He says, for example, that forms are in things (e.g. Eu. 5d1–2). But to say that forms are in things is only to say that various sensible have them, i.e. have the relevant properties. It does not follow from the fact that sensibles have properties that those properties are not separate, i.e. cannot exist unless some corresponding sensible particulars instantiate them.[ix] Other evidence seems equally indeterminate. This, however, is enough to vindicate Aristotles claim that Socrates did not separate universals, i.e. forms, if, as seems to be the case, he means only that Socrates is not committed to separation.[x] I close my discussion of Socrates by considering two further claims about forms—that they are self-predicative and that they are paradigms. Although Aristotle does not mention these claims in connection with Socrates, they are important in understanding both Plato and also Aristotles criticism of him in the Peri ideÃ… n; and we can get a better grip on Plato’s version of these claims if we look first at Socrates’ version. Socrates believes that the form of F cannot be both F and not F; that is, it cannot suffer narrow compresence with respect to F-ness. It can avoid being both F and not F in one of two ways: by being neither F nor not F, or by being F without also being not F. Although the evidence is meager, Socrates seems to favor the latter option; he seems to believe, that is, that the form of piety is pious, the form of justice is just, and so on. He thus seems to accept self-predication (SP), the thesis that any form of F is itself F.[xi] It no doubt sounds odd to say that the form of justice is just, and it may not be correct to do so. But the claim is more intelligible than it may initially appear to be. We have seen that Socrates says that various action-types and character-traits are F and not F—endurance, for example, is both courageous and not courageous. He does not mean that endurance is courageous or not courageous in the very same way in which a person might be; the property of endurance, for example, does not itself stand firm in battle. Rather, endurance is courageous and not courageous in so far as it explains why some things are courageous and why other things are not.[xii] Socrates believes, that is, that if x explains y’s being F, then x is itself F, though not necessarily in the very same way in which y is F; rather, x is (or may be) F in a sui generis way, simply in virtue of its explanatory role.[xiii] We can understand self-predications along the same lines. Forms are properties; the form of justice, for example, is the property of justice. Socrates believes that it is the single feature by which all and only just things are just; it is the ultimate source or explanation of what is just about just things, and it never explains why anything is not just. Socrates does not mean that it is just in the very same way in which Aristides was; he means that it is just simply in virtue of its explanatory role. On this view, Socrates has unusually generous criteria for being included in the class of Fs; something can be a member of the class of Fs by being the source or explanation of something’s being F in the ordinary way. We might well object to these criteria; but they do not commit Socrates to the view that the form of justice, for example, can win moral medals.[xiv] On behalf of this account of self-predication, it is worth noting that we readily predicate (e.g.) ‘justice’ in the ‘ordinary’ way of categorically different types of things—of, for example, people, acts, institutions, laws, and the like. So perhaps predicating it of the property of justice is not as radical a departure from ordinary usage as it may initially seem to be. Further, we have seen that Socrates is not shy about revising our pre-analytic beliefs; so perhaps one new belief he wants us to acquire is that the form of F is itself F. We have seen that Socrates believes that the one thing by which all Fs are F is the form of F; he also takes this one thing to be a paradigm (paradeigma, Eu. 6e4–5), so that by looking to it (apoblepein eis; Eu. 6e4) one can know of any given thing whether or not it is F. Plato and Aristotle use paradeigma in a variety of ways. Often, for example, they use it simply to mean ‘example’.[xv] Aristotle once calls his own forms paradigms (Phys. 194b26 = Met. 1013a27), by which he seems to mean that they are the formal—structural or functional—properties of things; as such, they are explanatory natures. But as we shall see, he believes that Platonic forms are paradigms in a different, and objectionable, sense. When Socrates says that forms are paradigms, he seems to mean only that they are standards in the sense that in order to know whether x is F, one must know, and refer to, the form of F. For x is F if and only if it has the property, i.e. form, of F; so in order to know that x is F, one needs to know what F is and use that knowledge in explaining how it is that x is F. (So paradigmatism and self-predication are closely linked. The form of F is F because it explains the F-ness of things; forms are also paradigms in virtue of their explanatory role.) I shall call this weak paradigmatism. As I interpret Socrates, he introduces forms for epistemological and metaphysical, but not for semantic reasons. Further, Socratic forms are universals in the sense that they are explanatory properties. The fact that they are self-predicative paradigms does not jeopardize their status as explanatory properties; on the contrary, they are self-predicative paradigms because they are explanatory properties. Compresence, Knowledge, and Separation Why does Plato take the compresence of opposites to require the existence of non-sensible forms that escape compresence? Aristotle rightly says that the reasons are metaphysical and epistemological. The metaphysical reason is especially prominent in the famous aitia-passage in the Phaedo (96a ff.), where Plato lays out criteria for adequate explanations. In his view, if x is F and not F, it cannot explain why anything is F; it cannot, in other words, be that in virtue of which anything is F. Since some sensible properties of F suffer compresence, reference to them does not explain why anything is F, and so they cannot be what F-ness is. Since explanation is possible, in these cases things are F in virtue of a non-sensible property, the form of F. So Plato concludes that ‘if anything else is beautiful besides the beautiful itself, it is so for no other reason than that it participates in the beautiful’ (Phaedo 100c4–6). Or again, it is not because of ‘bright color or shape or anything else of that sort’ (100d1–2) that anything is beautiful; rather ‘it is because of the beautiful that all beautiful things are beautiful’ (100d7–8). For sensible properties suffer compresence in so far as bright color, for example, is sometimes beautiful, sometimes ugly. In Plato, the Socratic view that the form of F is the one thing by which all Fs are F becomes the view that forms are aitiai, causal or explanatory factors—at least in certain cases, things are as they are because they participate in non-sensible forms that escape compresence. This metaphysical reason for positing forms has epistemological repercussions. For like Socrates, Plato thinks that knowledge requires explanation;[xvi] since he believes that in at least some cases explanation requires reference to forms, he also believes that in these cases one can have knowledge only if one knows the relevant forms. Since knowledge in these cases is possible, there must be forms. This epistemological reason for positing forms is especially prominent in Rep. 5–7, where Plato asks the ‘What is F?’ question and assumes that one needs to know what F is in order to know anything about F—where, as with Socrates, the knowledge at issue is knowledge as it contrasts with belief, and where definitions are real definitions.[xvii] The sight-lovers believe that we can answer the question ‘What is beauty?’ by simply mentioning the many beautifuls (ta polla kala, 479d3)—sensible properties like bright color. For in their view each such sensible property explains some range of cases. Bright color, for example, explains what makes this Klee painting beautiful; somber color explains what makes this Rembrandt painting beautiful; and so on. Against the sight-lovers, Plato points out that each such property suffers compresence since (e.g.) some brightly colored things are beautiful, others are ugly. In his view, if x is F and not F, it cannot explain why anything is F; so no such property can explain why anything is beautiful. Further, in his view as in Socrates’, we can explain why Fs are F only if F-ness is some one thing (479d3), the same in all cases; so F-ness cannot be a disjunction of properties. It is therefore a single non-sensible property, the form of F. This is required, in Platos view, by the possibility of knowledge. Like Socrates, then, Plato posits forms as universals whose existence is necessary for explanation and so for the possibility of knowledge. He also agrees with Socrates that F-ness itself cannot be not F. Unlike Socrates, however, Plato insists that forms are non-sensible. A related difference is that Socrates countenances a form for every property. But as Plato points out in, for example, Rep. 7 (523–5), only some predicates have sensible instances that suffer narrow compresence—‘thick’ and ‘thin’ are such predicates, but ‘finger’ is not. Like Socrates’ arguments for the existence of forms, Plato’s argument from compresence posits forms to explain, not the meaningfulness of general terms or linguistic understanding or even belief, but the possibility of explanation and knowledge. Indeed, the sight-lovers in Rep. 5 have rather sophisticated beliefs even though they do not countenance forms. Similarly, in Rep. 7 (523–5) sight can identify examples of thick and thin things, of hard and soft things; what it cannot do is define thickness and thinness, hardness and softness. For it is confined, naturally enough, to sensible properties, but in Platos view one cannot define thickness and thinness and so on in such terms.[xviii] Nor does the argument from compresence take forms to be particulars. Like Socrates, Plato assumes that a correct answer to a ‘What is F?’ question will specify the property of F. His interlocutors generally seem to agree; at least, their answers are typically phrased in terms of properties (e.g. bright color). The dispute between Plato and his interlocutors is about the nature of various properties: the sight-lovers take them to be sensible; Plato takes them to be non-sensible forms. The argument from compresence takes forms to be the basic objects of knowledge—one must know them in order to have any knowledge at all. It does not follow that forms are the only objects of knowledge. Nor is it clear why the fact that something suffers compresence should make it unknowable. Since bright color is both beautiful and ugly, it cannot be what beauty is; but it does not follow that we cannot know that bright color is both beautiful and ugly, or that something is brightly colored. Yet it is often thought that Plato takes sensibles to be unknowable, and it is often thought that Aristotle interprets Plato in this way. I have argued elsewhere, however, that Plato is committed only to the claim that forms are the basic objects of knowledge, in the sense that in order to know anything at all one must know them; he leaves open the possibility that if one knows them one can use that knowledge in such a way as to acquire knowledge of other things. It is tempting to suppose that Aristotle agrees. To be sure, Met. 1. 6 and 13.4 can be read as saying that Plato takes whatever changes to be unknowable. But perhaps Aristotle means only that Plato takes whatever changes to be unknowable in itself, independently of its relation to forms, so that whatever changes cannot be the basic object of definition or knowledge. Met. 13. 9 seems congenial to this interpretation. For Aristotle says there that ‘it is not possible to acquire knowledge without the universal’—a claim that plainly leaves open the possibility of knowing more than universals. Further, although he repeats the claim that Plato thinks that sensibles are always changing, he does not say that in Platos view that makes them unknowable. So perhaps Aristotle means to commit Plato only to the claim that forms are the basic objects of knowledge. The argument from compresence shows that forms are different from both sensible particulars and sensible properties. But it does not show that forms are separate, i.e. that they can exist whether or not the corresponding sensible particulars exist. Difference does not imply separation. Yet it is sometimes thought that Plato, both in fact and in Aristotles view, argues in this invalid way. The Metaphysics passages, however, do not saddle Plato with this invalid argument. Met. 1.6 says only that flux (i.e. on my interpretation, compresence) shows that forms are different (hetera; cf. Phaedo 74a11, c7) from sensibles; separation is not mentioned. In 13.4, Aristotle says that Plato separated forms; but he does not say why Plato did so. He mentions separation not as the conclusion of an argument, but simply as a distinguishing feature of the Platonic theory. In 13.9, however, Aristotle explains (III (1–6); see sect. 2) that Plato inferred from the flux of sensibles that there must be forms conceived as non-sensible universals that are the basic objects of knowledge and definition. He adds (III (8–10)) that Plato took forms to be substances, i.e. basic beings; since substances must be separate, forms are separate. Aristotle seems to believe, then, that the ‘flux argument’ shows only that forms are non-sensible universals that are the basic objects of knowledge and definition; that forms are separate follows only with the aid of further premises. These further premises give Plato a valid argument for separation. I think Aristotle is right not to claim that Plato argues from the flux of sensibles to the separation of forms; at least, Plato never does so explicitly.[xix] But is Aristotle right to say that Plato takes forms to be separate, if for other reasons? It is difficult to be sure. For one thing, Plato never says that forms are separate; he never, that is, uses any form or cognate of ‘chÃ… rizein’ of forms, at least not in the relevant sense.[xx] Nor do any of his explicit arguments imply that forms are separate. In the Timaeus, however, Plato seems to be committed to separation. For he says there that forms are everlasting and that the cosmos is not everlasting; there has always been a form of man, but there has not always been particular men. It follows that the form of man existed before the cosmos came into being, and so it existed when there were no sensible particular men; hence it can exist whether or not they do, and so it is separate. Now in the middle dialogues Plato sometimes says that forms are everlasting. But he does not say that the cosmos is not everlasting, so the Timaeus route to separation is not mentioned.[xxi] Indeed, nothing said in the middle dialogues seems to me to involve clear commitment to separation. None the less, separation fits well with the tenor of the middle dialogues, and the casual way in which separation emerges in the Timaeus perhaps suggests that Plato takes it for granted. So I shall assume that Aristotle is right to say that Plato separated forms, though it is important to be clear that Plato never argues, or even says, that forms are separate. Aristotle argues that since forms are separate, they are particulars (13. 9). Since he also takes forms to be universals, he concludes that forms are both universals and particulars. But as I (following Aristotle) understand separation, the claim that forms—universals—are separate is simply the claim that they can exist whether or not any corresponding sensible particulars exist. Why does Aristotle take this to show that forms are particulars? The answer is that he believes that universals exist when and only when they are instantiated; in his view, only substance particulars are separate (see e.g. Met. 1028a33–4). So he claims that if forms are separate they are (substance) particulars because he accepts the controversial view that universals cannot exist uninstantiated. He is therefore not convicting Plato of internal inconsistency: he means that Platos views do not square with the truth. He sees that Plato introduces forms simply to be universals; that they are particulars results only if we accept the controversial Aristotelian assumption, which Aristotle takes Plato to reject, that universals cannot exist uninstantiated. Aristotles complaints about separation therefore rely on one of the argumentative strategies as he intrudes into Platonism assumptions he accepts but that he thinks Plato rejects. Once we see that this is what Aristotle is doing, we can see that although he claims that forms are particulars, there is a sense in which he agrees with me that they are, or are intended to be, only universals. References: Allen, R. E. Platos Parmenides. Oxford: Blackwell, 1983. Beck, Maximilian. Platos Problem in the Parmenides. Journal of the History of Ideas.8 (1947): 232-36. Brandwood, Leonard. The Chronology of Platos Dialogues. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Cornford, F. M. Plato and Parmenides. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1939. Fowler, H. N. Plato-Statesman. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1925. Gadamer, Hans-Georg. The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy. Trans. Christopher Smith: New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 5: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. Miller, Mitchell H. Platos Parmenides: The Conversion of the Soul Reprint ed: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991. Miller, Mitchell, Jr. The Philosopher in Platos Statesman. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1980. Nussbaum, Martha. The Fragility of Goodness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Plato. Euthyphro. Apology. Crito. Phaedo. Phaedrus Trans. H. N. Fowler: Loeb Classical Library 1999. . Great Dialogues of Plato. Trans. W. H. D. Rouse. Reissue ed: Signet Classics, 1999. . The Republic. Trans. Desmond Lee. Ed. Rachana Kamtekar. 2nd ed: Penguin Classics, 2003. . Theaetetus. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. Rochol, Hans. The Dialogue Parmenides: An Insoluble Enigma in Platonism? International Philosophical Quarterly.11 (1971): 496-520. Sayre, Kenneth. Platos Late Ontology. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983. [i] Plato never uses the phrase ‘one over many’ (hen epi pollÃ… n; hen para polla). But he contrasts the one and the many, and he sometimes says that forms are para various things. (Parm. 132a11–12 has epi toutois au pasin heteron; 132c3 has some one thing which is epi pasin.) [ii] See Penner, ‘The Unity of Virtue’, and Irwin, PMT, ch. 3. See also C. C. W. Taylor, Plato: Protagoras (Oxford, 1976), 103–8 (though Taylor is less sure than Penner and Irwin are that Socrates is clear about the difference between sense and reference; see pp. 106–7). In ‘Plato on Naming’, Philosophical Quarterly, 27 (1977), 289–301, I in effect argue that Crat.—which contains an extended discussion of names, and of language more generally—does not involve a referential theory of meaning, or confuse sense and reference. If Crat. articulates Socrates views, then it provides further evidence that he is not committed to a referential theory of meaning and does not confuse sense and reference. By contrast, Vlastos, ‘The Unity of the Virtues’, 227, claims that neither Socrates nor Plato ever distinguishes between sense and reference. [iii] White, Plato on Knowledge and Reality, 9, agrees that semantic considerations are not ‘wholly explicit’ in the Socratic dialogues, but he believes that Meno 72–4 and Eu. 5c8–d5 suggest such considerations ‘less openly’. On the account of these passages that I have defended, however, they are not semantic. For both passages concern the ‘What is F?’ question, which asks not for the meaning of ‘F’, but for a real definition of F. Perhaps in mentioning the Meno passage, White has in mind 74d5–6, where Socrates tells Meno that since he calls various things by the name ‘shape’, Meno should be able to tell him what shape is. But Socrates seems to mean only that since Meno thinks that there are various shapes, he should be able to tell Socrates what shape is—it is the fact that the name applies to something, rather than the fact that there is such a name, that suggests that shape is something. To say that if a name, ‘F’, applies to something, there is such a thing as F-ness does not imply that every general term denotes a property or form, or that forms are the meanings of the terms to which they correspond, or even that forms are relevant to explaining the meanings of general terms. [iv] In La. 192ab, for example, Socrates argues that just as speed is some one thing, so too is courage. In Meno 72a–74a, he argues that just as being a bee is some one thing, so too is virtue. [v] Allen, by contrast, thinks that Met. 1. 6 ‘implies that Socrates identified the objects of definition with sensibles, which is another way of saying that he did not distinguish Forms from their instances’ (Platos Euthyphro, 134; cf. 136). But Met. 1. 6 says only that Socrates did not take them to be non-sensible, which leaves open the possibility that Socrates did not take them to be sensible either—he was uncommitted either way. Even if Aristotle means that Socrates took the objects of definition to be sensible, it would not follow that he thought that Socrates did not distinguish them from sensible particulars (which is what Allen seems to mean by ‘instances’). For Aristotle believes that there are not only sensible particulars but also sensible or observable properties or universals (see Ch. 2.4). And in Met. 13. 9, he commends Socrates for acknowledging the existence of universals as entities distinct from particulars, since ‘it is not possible to acquire knowledge without the universal’ (1086b5–6). If Aristotle claims both that Socrates recognized the existence of universals and also that he took them to be sensible, then the sensibles at issue here should be sensible universals rather than sensible particulars. [vi] I take ‘A exists independently of B’ to be equivalent to ‘A can exist whether or not B exists’. To say that A is separate from B is compatible with saying that B is separate from A. If A is separate from B but B is not separate from A, then A is not only separate from but also ontologically prior to B. Ontological priority implies separation, but separation does not imply ontological priority. [vii] In these two passages, ‘kath’ hekasta’ and ‘aisthÄ“ta’ denote only particulars.. [viii] Hence the claim that forms are separate is weaker than the claim that they can exist uninstantiated tout court. If forms can exist uninstantiated, they are separate, but the converse is not true. [ix] If Socrates believes that a form can exist only if it is in something, then he rejects separation; for the view that he believes this, see Vlastos, Socrates, 74; cf. pp. 55–66, 72–80. (By contrast, in ‘The Unity of the Virtues’, 252, Vlastos says that Socratic forms or universals are not ‘ontological dependencies of persons’; this seems to say that they exist independently of sensible particulars, in which case they are separate.) But although Socrates assumes that forms are in things, I do not see that he commits himself to the view that they would not exist unless they were in things. [x] By contrast, Allen, Platos Euthyphro, 136, argues that Socrates separated forms. [xi] See e.g. Prot. (330c3–e2, where justice is said to be just, and piety pious); HMa. 291d1–3 (beauty ‘will never appear ugly to anyone anywhere’—though even if it never appears ugly, it does not follow that it appears beautiful); Eu. 5d1–5 (the eidos of piety is pious) and, possibly, Eu. 5d1–5 (but cf. Vlastos, Socrates, 57 n. 48); Lys. 217ce. As I go on to suggest, commitment to self-predication also seems to be tacit or assumed elsewhere. [xii] More precisely, Socrates believes that endurance no more explains why one thing is courageous than why another thing is not. For in his view the only real—or, at least, the ultimate—explanation of anythings being F is the one thing by which all Fs are F. But it will be convenient to speak as I do in the text. [xiii] To say that if x explains ys being F, it is itself F, though perhaps in a different way from the way in which y is F, is not to say that x and y are F in different senses of ‘F’. To illustrate the difference between different ways of being F and different senses of ‘F’: horses and cows are animals in different ways, but ‘animal’ means the same in ‘Horses are animals’ and in ‘Cows are animals’. ‘Seal’, however, means something different as applied to the seals in a zoo and the Great Seal of the United States; see S. Peterson, ‘A Reasonable Self-Predication Premise for the Third Man Argument’, Philosophical Review, 82 (1973), 451–70 at 464. I elaborate on this point below in discussing Plato on SP; see also Chs. 10, 15, and 16. If xs explaining ys being F is a sui generis way of being F, then Socrates view of self-predication is not refuted by the fact that e.g. saccharine tastes bitter but makes other things taste sweet. Nor does saccharine therefore suffer narrow compresence of opposites, since it is not both sweet and bitter in virtue of some one and the same aspect of itself. It is sweet because it makes other things taste sweet; it is bitter because of its own taste. [xiv] C. C. W. Taylor interprets Socrates notion of self-predication in a somewhat similar way, saying that ‘if justice is seen as a force in a man causing him to act justly, it is by no means obviously nonsensical to describe it .  .  . as just’ (pp. 119–20; contrast pp. 112–13). See also Irwin, PMT 306 n. 6. However, they seem to think that Socrates takes the form of justice, for example, to be just in the very same way in which a person is just. [xv] In Plato, see e.g. Ap. 23b1; Gorg. 525c6–7; So. 251a7; Phdr. 262c9; Pol. 277d1; Laws 663e9. In Aristotle, see e.g. Top. 151b21, 157a14, 15. [xvi] For Platos insistence that knowledge requires an account, see Phd. 76b4–6, Rep. 531e4–5, 534b3–6, Tm. 51e3. Passages in which Plato asks the ‘What is F?’ question also assume that knowledge requires an account; for he believes that one needs to know what F is in order to know anything about F, and knowing what F is involves knowing an account of it. For references to places where Plato asks the ‘What is F?’ question, see below and the next note. (In all these passages, the relevant sort of account involves explaining the natures of the relevant entities; but see n. 17.) [xvii] For references to the ‘What is F?’ question, see e.g. Rep. 523d4–5, 524c11, e6. In Rep. 5 Plato infers from the fact that the sight-lovers do not know what beauty is that they know nothing about beauty; this assumes that one needs to know what F is in order to know anything about F. I discuss Rep. 5 further in Ch. 7. For a more detailed discussion, see my ‘Knowledge and Belief in Republic V’, Archiv fà ¼r Geschichte der Philosophic 60 (1978), 121–39, and ‘Knowledge and Belief in Republic V–VII’, in S. Everson (ed.), Companions to Ancient Thought, i: Epistemology (Cambridge, 1990), 85–115. [xviii] Rep. 523–5 is sometimes thought to concern not definitions of properties but identification of examples. For some discussion, see Irwin, PMT, ch. 6, esp. 318 n. 26, and 320–1 n. 39. I discuss this matter further, though still briefly, in ‘The One over Many’ and in ‘Plato on Perception’, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, supplementary volume (1988), 15–28. [xix] In Phd. 74a9–c5, for example, he infers from the fact that sensible equals are equal and unequal that there must be a form of equal that is different from, non-identical with, sensible equals. Separation is not mentioned. [xx] Neither Tm. nor the middle dialogues use any form or cognate of ‘chÃ… rizein’ of forms. In Parm., Plato says that ‘similarity itself exists separately (chÃ… ris) from the similarity we ourselves have’ (130b4); Vlastos, Socrates, 259–61, takes him to mean that forms exist independently of sensibles, i.e. can exist whether or not they do. However, in the just preceding lines Plato asks: ‘Have you yourself, as you say, distinguished in this way, on the one hand, separately certain forms themselves, on the other, separately, in turn, the t hings which participate in them?’ (130b1–3). Here he suggests, not that forms exist independently of sensibles, but that they can be distinguished separately from them, just as sensibles can in their turn be distinguished separately from forms. 130b4 seems to illustrate this general point by way of a particular example; it does not make a new point about existential independence. [xxi] Actual uninstantiation is sufficient but not necessary for separation. My point is that unlike Tm., the middle dialogues are not clearly committed to this particular sufficient condition. Rep. 10 has a form of bed. If it is everlasting, presumably it has not always been instantiated, since presumably there have not always been sensible beds, in which case it is separate.